Transition From Authoritian Rule In Argentina Essay Example for Free

revolution From Authoritian reign In genus Argentina EssayThe transition of regimes between several(a) systems of tower is an on-going and never-ending process. Every geo policy- reservation entity in the world is under some physique of governing body, be it barbarian or advanced, and no devil semipolitical systems function in exactly the same air. The system of government activity used in a certain argona, territory or orbit is highly pendant upon the experience of those governed with the systems of governments in place in the past. Because of the unique occurrences in history, no two entities depart experience accomplishments of transition between various forms of government in exactly the same demeanor.Even those countries that atomic number 18 geographically close and share similar histories testament experience differing levels of transition. Although great differences exist, however, legion(predicate) an(prenominal) similarities thunder mug also be d knifeliken between nations that are seemingly worlds apart. After World War II, both Argentina and brazil experienced periods of tyrannical prescript. Both nations came under haughty man sequence and afterward evolved from disdainful rule in differing manners. Therefore, through the shape of drawing line of merchandises and comparisons, it becomes apparent in what ways the current practice of democracy in brazil and Argentina is different because of each countrys former experience with authoritarian rule.IntroductionAlthough close geographically, Argentina and brazil-nut tree experienced vastly different evolutions in their form of governance in the period following World War II. Because the similarity in the political history of Argentina and brazil nut lies in their shared experience of authoritarian rule, it is of the essence(p), basic, to understand the ramifications of that form of government. The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines the term authoritarian by describing it as of, relating to, or favoring a concentration of force-taboo in a leaner or an elite not spiritally responsible to the great deal. (Merriam-Webster, 2007) To interpret this definition within the bounds of the research brain at fall out, it is important to draw out two portions of that definition.First, consider the phrase concentration of power. Unlike decentralized power that spreads rule amongst many, authoritarian rule places all power squarely upon the minority in power. Next, the key phrase most important in defining authoritarian is that the concentrated power is held by a leader or an elite. Again, this is the minority that holds a major(ip)ity of the power. Finally, consider the phrase that authoritarian rule is not constitutionally responsible to the lot. This could indicate that the government is not duly take by the people through a constitutionally-defined format, or that once elected, there are no checks and balances by which a full accounting of activities can be demanded by the people.To further fully explore both similarities and differences in the affect of authoritarian rule on later rule, it is important to define the difference between democratization of a nation and liberalization of a nation, because both political processes affect populations in a vastly different manner. According to Wikipedia, democratization is the transition from an authoritarian or a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic political system. (Wikipedia, 2007) In demarcation, liberalization refers to a relaxation of previous government restrictions, usually in areas of social or economic policy. (Wikipedia, 2007)It is possible, therefore, for democratization and liberalization to work hand in hand as a geopolitical entity transitions its form of government away from authoritarian rule, but it is not necessarily true that one requires the former(a). For example, a country can simply relax its set governmental activities without ac tual changing its form of rule.Authors Guillermo ODonnell and Philippe C. Schmitter posit in their work entit direct Transitions from potentate Rule Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies that liberalization can exist without democratization. (ODonnell Schmitter, 10) But opus liberalization does not necessarily need democratization, the authors go on to state that in all experiences examined, the attainment of political democracy was preceded by a constrictificant, if unsteady, liberalization. (ODonnell Schmitter, 10) Therefore, the true difference between liberalization and democratization moldiness consider the influence one has upon the other.To understand the state of politics in southwestern America today, one must(prenominal) first understand the basis from which it has evolved, and consequently its process for evolution. This paper will first examine the varying forms of governance in Argentina and brazil prior to authoritarian rule. Next this paper will study how authoritarian rule came into universe in Argentina and brazil. Further, this paper will explore how authoritarian rule in Argentina and Brazil gave way to other forms of governance. And at long last, the picture-day political climate will be examined in both Argentina and Brazil, in light of the history from which both countries have evolved.Argentina vs. Brazil Governance Prior to Authoritarian Rule Argentina and Brazil became independent nations in 1816 and 1822 respectively. During this similar metre period, Argentina separated from Spanish rule, while Brazil broke from the rule of the Portuguese. Both countries, according to the CIA World Factbook, were both heavily influenced by atomic number 63an powers, both at their period of separation and to the amaze day. In South America, Brazil is the largest nation, and currently the most populous. Argentinas political and societal history was largely shaped by Italian and Spanish immigrants that act to stream in until the 1930s. (CIA World Factbook, 2007) The forms of government employed by Argentina and Brazil differed, however, afterwards each nation was granted its independence and onwards the institution of authoritarian rule. Both nations separated from countries with forms of government far different than they, themselves, would adopt. Author David Rock, in his work entit direct Argentina in the Twentieth Century, explains that the period between 1890 and 1930 in Argentina marked the rise to a position of national dominance of one of Argentinas leading political parties, the Unin Cvica Radical, or Radicalism. (Rock, 66) Conservative rule in Argentina gave way to the rule of the Radical companionship in 1916, and it is that party that ruled until being overthrown in favor of an authoritarian government in 1930. Rock states that At one time it was thought simply that Radicalism was the political vehicle for the Argentine middle classes. However, more recently it has been visualisen that the partys origins are to be traced to a coalition between the middle classes and segments of the toss off-based elite. (Rock, 67) A coalition between the middle classes thought to be the backbone of the Radical ships company and the land-based elite is significant, because it was the land-based elite that were in rule as a conservative power both sooner the Radical party took train in 1916 and after it was overthrown in 1930. Despite an apparent coalition between dissimilar factions, the CIA World Factbook reports that up until about the mid-20th snow, much of Argentinas history was dominated by periods of internal political conflict between Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and armed forces factions. (CIA World Factbook, 2007) This conflict refers both to the transfers of power in 1916 and 1930 as well as the eng timement that continued in the intervening period of fourteen old age. While the Radical party was in power, Argentina enjoyed a policy of exonera te trade, allowing a strong merchandise economy to develop and aiding in the monetary development of the country.The tie between the middle-class bases and the land-based elite can be illustrated even in this policy of free trade, as Rock states that this system was undermined by the inherent tendency of the primary export economy to concentrate economic power and opportunities narrowly in the custody of the landed groups and foreign capital. (Rock, 68) Despite progress made in the advancement of the interests of Brazil during the period prior to 1930, the overall stability of the Radical partys governance was shaky at best, and laid the ground work for transition to authoritarianism in 1930. Brazil employed a more example form of government earlier on than Argentina, when a republic was established in 1889. The republic of Brazil, formally named the Republic of the United States of Brazil by the constitution drafted and ordinateed in 1891, was lead by a constitutionally democr atic government that employed a twist unlike a traditional democracy, such as the United States, the original leaders during this period of time in Brazil were not elected popularly.Instead, power was seized during a coup detat and leaders were appointed. Wikipedia develops the important point that during this period of time, the government of Brazil decentralized and restored autonomy to the provinces. (Wikipedia, 2007) The major challenge to the ruling party of Brazil prior to 1930 was one of legitimacy how could an illegal, disloyal act (the coup detat) establish a legal political order? (Wikipedia, 2007) Unlike in Argentina, where a disparity between the land-based elite and those without land led to the governments eventual overthrow, Brazils future can be seen by the fact that the rise of the Republic also led to the strengthening of the state-sponsored Army the same Army that would precipitate the acidulate to authoritarian rule in the 1930s. Although a Republic, albeit w ith initial leaders installed instead of elected, future Brazilian options did not enjoy the popular support of the people as was seen elsewhere, notably Argentina. As the road was traveled towards authoritarian rule, throughout the 1920s, only between 2.3% and 3.4% of the broad(a) population voted. (Wikipedia, 2007) Hardly, then, a instance government, Brazil continued to struggle with the question of the legitimacy of its republic. With that low participation recorded, any decisions made by the government thumb to criticism and skepticism. Although this question of legitimacy would ultimately hurt the concept of a constitutional democracy during that period of time, the Army continued to strengthen with its power study only nominally by the government and the people. Argentina and Brazil share similarities and differences in their history prior to the 1930s. One notably similarity is the continued unbalance of government that ensued during the period prior to the transition t o authoritarian rule. This is tempered, however, by differing causes for instability notably dissention between the ruling party and the landed, in Argentina, and the ruling part and multitude factions, in Brazil. Like Argentina, Brazil enjoyed wealth through exporting during the period prior to 1930. Unlike Argentina, however, Brazil failed to account for the agricultural needs of its own countrymen before exportation, and thus was forced to import many products. These factors all lead to the laying of the fashion to authoritarianism.Argentina vs. Brazil How Authoritarian Governments Came into PowerOne of the leading exportation products of Brazil prior to 1930 was coffee. After the crash of the American stock market in 1929, the Great Depression experienced in North American had a trickle-down affect on the economies of South America. The prices paid for coffee, and thus the revenue gained from the exportation of coffee, was slashed by one third initially and later by two third s. With such a gross decline in profitability, the exportation economy as a whole was abnormal. Any money held in reserve by the government to equalize pricing was tapped and emptied. And thus, the country of Brazil was ripe for revolution. (Wikipedia, 2007)Revolution came in 1930 when Getulio Dornelles Vargas came to power in a legitimate election gained through strategical alliances throughout Brazil. A non-bloody revolution, the changeover was simply one of ideologies. Vargas rule was to be one interim in nature during his fifteen years in power, his rule gradually became less open and more repressive. Wikipedia characterizes this change in his pattern of rule as a legal hybrid between the regimes of Mussolinis Italy and Salazars Portuguese Estado Nvo, copied repressive fascist tactics, and conveyed their same rejection of liberal capitalism, but attained power baring few indications of his future quasi-fascist polices. (Wikipedia, 2007 While in power, Vargas thoroughly reject ed the determine of Communism they were in direct contrast with his support of the landed elite and instead espoused the fascist notions that would help to lock in and retain the power he had grown as the leader of Brazil.The decentralization that had occurred in Brazil before 1930 was gradually eroded, laying open the path to authoritarian rule. The policies enacted by Vargas included the rule of one of the highest tariffs in the world and constructed a heavily regulated and increasingly centralized economy. (Rock, 16) David Rock, in his work entitled Latin America in the 1940s, went on to outline that Brazil and nearby Argentina experienced changes in economies during the time of World War II, stating that although they could no longer import capital goods and raw materials, the industrial producers of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and other countries managed to increase production. (Rock, 18) As such, both Argentina and Brazil benefited by the demands of war. The turn to authoritarianism between the two countries would differ, however, in the way in which military regimes lead to the transfer of power.Philippe Faucher, in his work entitled Authoritarian Capitalism Brazils Contemporary Economic and semipolitical Development, states that when the dictatorship first came to power in Brazil it appeared that it would follow the same course as other military dictatorships. (Faucher, 11) This was not to be the case, however. Army strength built in Brazil for many years, both pre- and post-World War II. But it would not be until 1964 that a military power decisively came to power in Brazil, many years after the branch of rumblings in 1930. In between, militaristic periods ensued, interspersed with periods of quasi-democratic rule.In 1964, Marshal Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, then Brazils Army Chief of Staff, came to power. He skillfully dealt with challenges to his power by making many changes to the government, including removing long-serving gove rnors and representatives and adding power to the presidency. Although his intent was solely to limit challenges, he instead installed the groundwork for a military dictatorship. Wikipedia states that his measures provided the successor governments of Marshal Artur da Costa e Silva (196769) and General Emlio Garrastazu Mdici (196974) with a basis for authoritarian rule. (Wikipedia, 2007)Meanwhile, in Argentina, a coup detat was enacted, quite in contrast with the bloodless transitions of power in Brazil. Authors Benjamin Most and Lynne Rienner, in their work entitled Changing Authoritarian Rule and Public Policy in Argentina, 1930-1970, state that the military coup of 1930 ended middle-class rule in Argentina and reestablished the political domination of Argentinas conservative, export-oriented landed elites and their allies among the export-related industrialists. (Most Rienner, 46)While Brazil bounced between authoritarian and quasi-democratic rule for more than three decades, A rgentina entered a period, in 1930, of different forms of authoritarian government. This period would last until the mid 1970s. It is important to look at the signifier of forms of authoritarianism that prevailed in Argentina during this 40 year period, as it is indicative of the basic needs and desires of the Argentinean population during that time.Most and Rienner, outlining another work of Guillermo ODonnell, assign that Argentina experienced periods of traditional authoritarian rule, populist authoritarian rule, non-dominant rule, and bureaucratic-authoritarian rule. During those four periods, the dominant coalition was first export industrialists, then domestic industrialists, then non-dominant coalitions, and finally more militaristic rule. Interestingly, Most and Rienner, quoting ODonnell, show the beginning of more militaristic rule in 1966, coinciding with Brazils own turn towards militaristic rule. Although history shows the first strongly authoritarian rule in Brazil t o have been military-affiliated, the comparison does not draw to Argentinean rule. Instead, power couple Juan and Eva Peron, who would later be fictionalized and characterized in the stage and film productions of Evita, were the most noted rulers during authoritarian rule in Argentina. Most and Rienner state that the populist coalition an authoritarian government that sought to identify with the masses was mobilized and dominated by Juan Peron. Peron ruled until being overthrown by a militarily-influenced regime in 1955, shortly after terrible droughts affected the country and also shortly the death of his wife, Eva. One can almost hear the strains of Dont Cry for Me, Argentina when contemplating the fate of that nation after the change in regime in 1955.Instead, the period from 1955 until 1966 proved to be almost without notably occurrence, as no strong leadership emerged. Although authoritarian rule lasted yet several decades longer, the instability begun in 1955 would begin the way out of authoritarian rule in Argentina. Similarly, continued instability in Brazil would lead to the same, albeit later than the emergence of Argentina from authoritarian rule.Argentina vs. Brazil How Authoritarian Governments Gave Way to Other Governance Powerful to varying extents in Argentina and Brazil, the time nevertheless came for authoritarian rule to end in both countries. Like their descent into and experience with authoritarian rule, Argentina and Brazil left behind the constraints of that form of government in varying manners and with varying levels of difficulty. Indeed, the most marked difference in the changes in rule in Argentina and Brazil is the steps and timelines followed by each in the 1970s and 1980s. Authors Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan note the following in their work entitled Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe Brazil has experienced the most difficulty in consolidating democra cy. (Linz Stepan, 166) Linz and Stepan go on after that telling statement to breakdown a variables in Brazil that could have lead to its difficulty in transitioning, but arrive at the conclusion that those variables including overwhelming debt and the affect of military rule are not so significantly different than situations faced by other transitioning governments so as to set Brazil apart. Instead, they arrive at a separate conclusion that the major distinctive problem in Brazil concerns our variable of the political economy of legitimacy. (Linz Stepan, 166) As alluded to in the section dealing with Brazils governmental type dating to the beginning of the twentieth century, the largest stumbling block was one of legitimacy. Through regime after regime, leader after leader, Brazil continued to experience a strong enough, popularly backed official to bring an aura of legitimacy to its government. A further stumbling block to Brazil in their quest to realize a democratic rule aft er the end of authoritarianism was the fact that historically, Brazil had the least structured system of political parties, in comparison to other South American countries studied. (Linz Stepan, 167) This lack of structure was clearly illustrated by the continual bouncing between authoritarian and non-authoritarian rule during the period following World War II.Because a coalition of any real strength failed to materialize to decisively lead Brazil out of the dark authoritarian rule and into the light of democracy, its transition period was prolonged. Finally, Linz and Stepan note that the constitution put into place in the late nineteenth century proved again to be inadequate in light of the caste-like troupe in Brazil, where the disparity between the classes was stark. The question be, then, as to how Brazil eventually did cast aside authoritarian rule in favor of democratization. The answer, it seems, resides in the note of liberalization and democratization. Linz and Stepan n ote that the Brazilian transition from authoritarianism beganin 1974andwas not completed until1990. (Linz Stepan, 167-168)Sixteen years of transition is demarcated by initial efforts made in 1974 by General Ernesto Geisel, who set out to institute controlled liberalization in order to aid the country in moving forward alongside South American neighbors then doing the same. Although liberalization was first introduced in the mid-1970s, democratization did not catch up for quite awhile. In the intervening years, many changes rocked Brazil, but a sign of true democratization was to come when in 1990, President Fernando Collor de Mello was directly and popularly elected by the people. The movement of the people that made the direct and popular election of Mello possible in 1990 began in early 1984. As was characteristic of the entire Brazilian transition from authoritarian rule to democracy, the period of time necessary to enact change was lengthy. Linz and Stepan write that from Febru ary to June 1984, Brazil experienced the most sustained and massive political movement in its history the campaign for Directas Ja, or Direct Elections in a flash. (Linz Stepan, 168) Although significant portions of both the political and civil realms in Brazil were in favor of a change to a system of direct elections, and although, in fact, no major group voiced opposition to direct elections, the wheels of democratization turned slowly. The military regime then in place insisted upon exerting a final show of power, and thus the elections of 1985 the first opportunity for a non-military government since 1964 were still conducted by indirect vote. More political drama ensued when the elected president died before take for granted office, and his vice-president served at the displeasure of many. Slow but not stopped, however, was the march towards full democracy, and so Mello was elected in 1990. Linz and Stepan also spend significant time in analyzing the regime change from au thoritarian rule to democracy in Argentina. One of the first similarities noted was that Argentina emerged from authoritarian rule, similarly to Brazil, by shedding the remains of military rule. While Brazils military rule uttered its dying gasp by blocking a direct election, Argentina cut a more-bloody grasp at remaining in power. Indeed, Linz and Stepan write that while the overall regime lacked the coherence of ideology and organization of a totalitarian regime, many of the militarys statements about the need to exterminate their enemies had a totalitarian edge. (Linz Stepan, 190) In fact, more than three hundred times more people per capita disappeared in Argentina than in Brazil. (Linz Stepan, 190) While Brazils military may have created stumbling blocks, its leaders were at least working towards liberalization. In contrast, Argentinas military rulers wanted no part in that initiative and sought to control power by eliminating the competition. A further contrast drawn by Lin z and Stepan was that the military never created parties or held elections as in Brazil. (Linz Stepan, 190) Indeed, while the rule in Brazil was farsighted and thought out an eventual change in rule, the Argentinean model of military rule sought to hold tight to power for as long as possible without run across to the benefits that may be inherent in change. Linz and Stepan outline five consequences of the fact that the military held so tightly to power, and in fact was able to stay in power for a full eighteen months after their defeat. First, the span of eighteen months between defeat and the secession of power meant the possibility of revolutionary policies was precluded. (Linz Stepan, 192) Second, although the military in its dying gasp held on to power far longer than anticipated, it was debilitatedened by a fear of conflict caused internally. This fear was rightfully backed by practicality for any hope of power to remain, any internal division would be deadly.Third, the co ntinued show of power by the military was rebutted when the incoming regime prosecuted military officers vigorously for human rights violations. Fourth, the violence exhibited by the military against any adversaries tarnished any future hope of partnerships with the incoming democratic government. And finally, the prosecution of military officers almost led to an undoing of the democratic process, as uprising after uprising by other military officers drew President Raul Alfonsins attention away from other critical issues and forced concessions that reflected poorly on a newly-democratic government. Although tenuous at the start, the turmoil experienced in both Brazil and Argentina was weathered by the democratic governments so longed for during authoritarian rule. Authors Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman offer insight as to why democratization was such an arduous process in Argentina and Brazil, formulation that in non-crisis circumstances, incumbent authoritarian leaders tend to enjoy greater leverage. (Haggard Kaufman, 78) Obviously, the leverage for the authoritarian leaders in Argentina and Brazil suffered because crises did occur, including financial downfalls that caused the economies of both countries to suffer. But perhaps those crises were in fact beneficial, in providing the impetus necessary for regime change to occur.Argentina vs. Brazil Todays Political Climate In present-day Brazil, the CIA World Factbook lists the type of government as federative republic. In fact, the formal name for the nation is the Federative Republic of Brazil. The current constitution was enacted in 1988 towards the end of rule by the last non-directly elected ruler. Interestingly, in a nation that once experienced dismal election turnout rates, voting is without delay required between the ages of 18 and 70, with the exception of military conscripts, who do not vote.Similarly to the United States, presidential elections are held now every four years. On the economic front, a country once plagued by enough debt to threaten a complete collapse of government is now growing at a rate of 2.2% per year. The Factbook quotes that while domestic and international economic shocks have affected the overall economy, the fact that Brazil absorbed these shocks without financial collapse is a pension to the resiliency of the Brazilian economy. (CIA World Factbook, 2007) Each president elected since 1990 has introduced initiatives to further strengthen the economy. To understand the full extent of where Brazil is politically today, one must first understand the type of government now in rule. The basic tenet of a federative republic is that the popularly elected president is both the chief of state and learning ability of government. The election of presidents and legislators is enabled by a multiparty system in a federative republic. In current-day Brazil, this multiparty system is exhibited by the fact that more than one xii political parties are curren tly represented in the legislature, and the president and vice-president were elected from separate political parties.Although the legislative and executive branches of the government work closely together, the terrace is set apart. In looking for a cause for this separation of the third wheel of government, it can be presumed that it is to ensure complete independence in the rulings turn over down and that those rulings are not influenced by ruling members of the legislature or the president himself. After so many years of military rule interspersed with weak quasi-democratic rule, it can be easily seen that the setting apart of the judiciary is a stabilizing move. The present-day government of Argentina has developed similarly to that of Brazil. In a slight departure, the CIA World Factbook lists Argentina as simply a republic instead of a federative republic. More practically stated, Argentina is currently a representative democracy. Unlike Brazil, the current constitution in A rgentina was the one originally enacted in 1853 it has, however, been amended numerous times. In a very similar electoral process to Brazil, presidential and vice presidential candidates are elected to four year terms. Also similarly to Brazil, the president is both the head of state and head of government. A final similarity is that voting is also compulsory for anyone above the age of 18. The roots of todays Argentinean government can be more clearly seen in the history of Argentina than can be traced in Brazil. One of the two largest political parties in power today is the Radical polite Union, which formerly ruled in Argentina from 1916-1930. The efforts of this party and the popular support among the masses have sustained its power throughout more than a century from its founding in 1890 and its cause of supporting and enhancing the well-being of the middle class remains relevant in the current political climate. The other of the two largest political parties also has a clear historical tie. Called the Partido Justicialista, or Judicialist Party, the platform arose from the efforts of overthrown Juan Peron and his efforts to expand the role of labor in the political process during the 1940s. (Wikipedia, 2007) Once a country divided by vast differences in social classes, the two largest political parties now place utmost emphasis on the middle and working classes. Brazil and Argentina both enjoy a bicameral legislature composed very similar to that of the House of Representatives and Senate of the United States of America. In Brazil, the legislature is called the Congresso Nacional, or subject Congress. The two houses of legislature within are called the Senado Federal or Federal Senate, and the Camara dos Deputados or Chamber of Deputies. The members of the Senate serve eight year terms, with one-third elected during the first four year election and two-thirds elected during the second four year election. Three Senators are selected from each Federal di strict, totaling 81 altogether.The Chamber of Deputies are elected to four year terms and represent their Federal district proportionate to population, totaling 513 altogether. The vast number of political parties represented in the Brazilian government is a sure sign of the people that they want to ensure representation for all representation that was missing during period of authoritarian rule in Brazils history.The Argentinean legislative branch is set up and named in the same way as Brazil, with slight variances occurring in the number of representatives and length of terms.. The Senate of Argentina boasts 72 representatives elected to six-year terms, with one-third up for election every other year. The Chamber of Deputies in Argentina counts 257 representatives who are elected to four year terms, with half up for election every other year. The judiciary, as mentioned prior, is set apart in terms of rule from the other two bodies of government in Brazil. It is not quite so sepa rate in Argentina. In both countries, members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president for life and confirmed by the legislature. In Brazil, however, life ends at 70 at that age, judges are mandatorily retired. On key difference in the appointment of judges between Brazil and Argentina is that judges in Argentina can be deposed by the legislature this is not the case in Brazil. A lasting legacy in Argentina is the current role of the military in overall society. Having experienced gross tyranny under military rule for so many years and with bloodshed that affected such a wide population, there is understandable fear of an overly powerful military. Therefore, the military is firmly under civilian control. (Wikipedia, 2007) Once a force that completely disregarded human rights and sought only to maintain the largest extent of power possible, the Argentinean military is now a greatly downsized force with only volunteer soldiers. Conscription in the Argentinean military was a bolished in 2001, further giving control to the civilian sector.The history of Brazil speaks more openhearted to the rule of military forces, and as such, the influence of the military on the present-day democracy of Brazil is different from that experienced in Argentina. Conscription in the Brazilian military is still compulsory males between the ages of 21 and 45 must serve a term of between nine and twelve months, but can volunteer for this service as young as 17. Women are also allowed and encouraged to serve in the armed forces of Brazil.At any given time, 33 million men and 38 million women are deemed fit for military service only a small percentage of that actually serve at any given time. This figure is roughly five times the number of men and women in Argentina considered fit for service. Brazil also outspends Argentina in the upkeep of military forces by a ratio of two to one. This may change in the future, however, as the continually stabilizing economy of Argentina laun ched what is called image 2000 in 2005 to make its forces more prepared for any needs the country requires. (CIA World Factbook, 2007)Conclusion By all appearances, the governments of Argentina and Brazil have successfully transitioned out of authoritarian rule and into democratic bodies. This transition, as illustrated by the many examples of this paper, has not come easily or quickly. Both nations experienced much strife in the twentieth century, which has carried on some levels into the twenty-first century. In the end, however, the power of the people prevailed in both countries, and democracy changed from a fleeting form of government experienced only sporadically in the past to a strong form of rule which has a secure future.The future of both Argentina and Brazil is not pre-determined, however, any more than the various forms of rule in the past was pre-determined. Instead, continued struggles will ensue as the democracies in place grow and age and are tested by circumstance s yet unforeseen. In Brazil, the democracy is still only just over twenty years old, and only a few years older in Argentina.By comparison, when the democracy of the United States of America was just over thirty years old, a war was being fought with the former mother-land in the War of 1812 when the democracy of the United States of America was just under 100 years old, a civil war was fought that proved to be the toughest challenge to the future of democracy ever though possible. And yet the United States of American has prevailed with a democracy considered the strongest in the world.As the democracies of Brazil and Argentina age to thirty, forty, fifty and a hundred years old, challenges will arise to test legitimacy and strength of power. However, Brazil and Argentina took a far different path to democracy than did the United States of America. Because of the trials and turmoil already experienced through authoritarian rule, it is likely that the governments of Argentina and Br azil will be well-prepared to take on the challenges of the future.It is in looking forward that it becomes necessary to define one further term that of foresight. Foresight can be defined as using the lessons of the past with the realities of the present to plan for the future. Both Brazil and Argentina are steeped in rich lessons of past forms of governmental rule by remembering those histories and tempering them with current circumstances, the nations will be well-equipped to face the future. Those futures will likely continue on different paths, however, based again on lessons and examples of the past. Most importantly, the future of democracy, similarly to the current practice of democracy in Brazil and Argentina, will continue to differ because of each countrys former experience with authoritarian rule.ReferencesArgentina. (2007) CIA World Factbook Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 fromhttps//www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html.Bruneau, T.C., Faucher, P. ( Eds.). (1981). Authoritarian Capitalism Brazils Contemporary Economic and Political Development. Boulder Westview Press.Brazil. (2007). CIA World Factbook. Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 fromhttps//www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html.Democratization. (2007).Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Democratization.Haggard, S. Kaufman, R. (1999). The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions. InTransitions to Democracy, ed. Lisa Anderson. New York Columbia University Press.History of Brazil, 1889-1930. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(1889-1930).History of Brazil, 1930-1945. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(1830-1945).History of Brazil, 1945-1964. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(19 45-1964).Liberalization. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalization.Linz, J.J. Stepan, A. (1996). Problems of Democrative Transition and Consolidation Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore The JohnsHopkins University Press.Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary. (2007). Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 fromhttp//www.webster.com/dictionary/.Most, B. A. (1991). Changing Authoritarian Rule and Public Policy in Argentina, 1930-1970.Boulder Lynne Rienner Publishers.ODonnell, G. Schmitter, P.C. (1986). Transition from Authoritarian Rule Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress.Politics of Argentina. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_ Argentina.Politics of Brazil. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Braz il.Rock, D. (Ed.). (1975). Argentina in the 20th Century. London Gerald Duckworth Co. Ltd.Rock, D. (Ed.). (1994) Latin America in the 1940s War and Postwar Transitions.BerkeleyUniversity of California Press.

Global village Essay Example for Free

Global hamlet EssayAmerica was a time of challenging authority and established conventions. It was into this era that a prof of Media studies at Toronto University rose to media personality status. Marshall Mcluhan is famous for introducing nine to catchy aphorisms much(prenominal) as the medium is the message. Although his theories hire always been contested, they were popular at the time and are currently enjoying a revival.One such theory is his vision of the Global Village which I will discuss in this essay. To sympathise the term, a comprehension of some of his other ideas is necessary. Mcluhan was influenced by Harold Adams Innis who suggested that each medium of communication had a time bias which affected the stability of society. In short, he saw that time biased media such as stone carving would endure time and lead to a stable society. Space biased media, such as papyrus, could easily be revised and lead to an unstable culture (Meyrowitz 198517).Mcluhan went beyo nd this to suggest that different media have sensory bias (Postman went beyond this to repugn that the medium contains an ideological bias). Mcluhan saw each new media invention as an extension of some human faculty. In The Medium is the Massage he notes, All new media are extensions of some human faculty (Mcluhan and Fiore 196726). The book illustrates some examples the wheel of the foot, the book of the eye, clothing of the skin and electronic circuitry of the central aflutter system. In terms of the worldwide village the last extension is the most important.He saw us as breaking our ties with a local society and, through our new electronic extensions, connecting orbiculately to a new world of total link. We now live in a Global Villagea simultaneous happening (Mcluhan Fiore 196763). He refers to the village as a global community, existing with a level of connection associated with small rural settlings. We can name evidence for this in terms of what is sometimes termed an always on culture. News travels instantaneously across the globe, 1 in 6 people own a mobile earphone (Guardian 2002) and the Internet smashes old barriers of communication.However, the Internet was in its infancy when Mcluhan used the term, which was first used in response to radio. There is some postulate over the origin of the term global village. Eric Mcluhan writes that James Joyce reffered to a similar phrase, as did Wyndham Lewis. His opinion is that his father was probably already developing the notion and found it referenced in Lewis give afterwards. Mcluhans view of the Global Village was positive. He saw it championing greater social involvement and wrote, In an electronic information environment, nonage groups can no longer be ignoredThis is a technological determinist attitude as it holds the medium as the individual key to their involvement. Mcluhan also notes, in that location is absolutely no inevitability as long as there is a willingness to contemplate what is happening (Mcluhan and Fiore 196725). This is rather at odds with some of Mcluhans other material. He often restrains poetically conditionful statements about our helplessness in the face of technology (All media work us over completely (Mcluhan Fiore 196726)). Digital TV offers increasing interactivity with Internet functions such as e-mail and online banking available next to greater entertainment choices.It is be put to an alternative use in sheltered housing by allowing residents in difficulty to contact the manager an example of how new technology is including minority groups. However, with the advent of digital TV the Government has come under pressure to sell the broadcasting spectrum that analogue occupies and is planning to do so before 2010. The cause of this look set to constitute a greater break than the one it healed. 50% of homes currently have digital TV however a trinity of homes are unable to receive digital TV at all.A report by the Department of Trade and Industry found that 6% of the universe of discourse are likely to object to the switch-off based on the cost of upgrading and the belief that we watch too much TV (The Observer, 2004). If the analogue signal were to be switched off, those who couldnt (or wouldnt) receive digital TV would have no access to TV. The gap between rich and poor would accelerate and a greater social divide would exist. Technological Determinists refer to a technological revolution and since the invention of this term there has been concern for those left outside.The issue is more complex than Mcluhan presents it and subject to factors beyond that of just the medium. In Mcluhans time the Internet was farthest from the widespread facility it is today. He died in 1980, but solitary(prenominal) 5 years later the system to which the phrase online community is most pertinent was operational. Internet forums allow a number of people across the globe to converse in substantive time. The Internet seems to provide the most convincing argument for the global village. With broadband most work ons are instant, allowing the user to converse, transfer money, view information and distinguish products regardless of geography.Mcluhans idea of electronic circuitry extending the nervous system is easier to comprehend when you consider someone sitting down at a computer. The physical action of typing becomes the cause, but the effect is realised in an electronic global network. Meyrowitz notes how At one time, parents had the ability to discipline a child by displace the child to his or her room-a form of ex-communication from social interaction (Meyrowitz 1985Preface). This is no longer the case. The Internet offers the possibility of extending our central nervous system across the globe.It is intrinsic in todays society and much has been written over its social effects. Wellman and Gulia remark, those on either side of this debate assert that the Internet will create either wonderful new f orms of community or will destroy communication altogether (Wellman The Networked Community). The reality is unlikely to be as gift up as this (although Mcluhans global village would suggest that it is). Meyrowitz has implored that new media blur the boundaries between public and private behaviour (Meyrowitz 198593-114).The same headline in a newspaper and read by a newsreader are two different messages. Print media does not invite the same depth of character synopsis that TV does. The public broadcast begins to merge a private situation and invites a personal reading of the presenter. The personal homepage is an explicit example of the blurring between public and private boundaries. People from all walks of life are making available to the connected world their demo of themselves. Cheung notes how it can be emancipatory as it allows you to rehearse your presentation (Cheung 2000).Unlike face-to-face communication you can refine your presentation until you are content. Mcluhan envisaged the global village as creating a greater level of social involvement and to some extent we can see this happening with the personal homepage. Individuals are reaching out to a global mass audience to say, this is me. Grosswiler notes that Mcluhan would have concur with the idea that electronic media increase the desire for closeness and intimacy in the Global Village (Grosswiler 1998118).However there is a problem in define what we mean by closeness and intimacy. A personal webpage is more personal than the BBC homepage but not as personal as face-to-face communication. Mcluhan would argue that the closeness and intimacy on the personal webpage is the only type that exists as we live in the global village. For Mcluhan there was no other village and intimacy could be with anyone, anywhere. There is a tendency by those who consider the Internet in a technologically determinist way to view it in isolation.The Internet is for most people not the totality of their social int eraction, although it is becoming increasing possible to live your life without human contact. It is possible to order about everything you could need using the Internet, yet town centres still exist. I whitethorn talk to friends online but the majority of communication with them will be face-to-face. Mcluhan is often impeach of exaggerating his conclusions and this is evident. While the personal webpage is popular it doesnt provide a substantial system of interaction.It also clear that while a minority of people make friends online, face-to-face interactions comprise the majority. Mcluhans famous aphorism the medium is the message, represents the belief that the medium itself has social impact of which the masses are usually considered to be unaware. If the power of the media is so great, how is it that determinists such as Mcluhan can stand outside of it to comment? Furthermore Mcluhan thought that as soon as we are aware of something as environment, a greater process must be in effect (Mcluhan, Eric).However, Mcluhan was considered knowledgeable enough to sit on a board set up to examine the totality of communications problems in modern society (McBride cited in Briggs and Burke 2002258-260). The outcome of this report would have made interesting reading but unfortunately political conditions halted proceedings. Maybe I would be discussing a different concept if the report had gone ahead. Mcluhan once remarked that the one thing a slant is not aware of is water. The water determines everything the fish does yet the fish is blissfully unaware.The point is that we are the fish and technology our water. However this doesnt prove the argument, it evidently explains it. At first glance the phrase appears clever yet contains no empirical evidence and is typical of Mcluhans inventive and persuasive useful of language. Mcluhans global village is perceived as optimistic. Yet a Marxist interpretation offered by Ang notes that the making of the global village can be rewritten as the transformation, or domestication, of the non-Western Other in the name of capitalist modernity (Ang 1996150-180 cited in Grosswiler 1998142).While the idea of the spread of communication remains constant, it is seen to destroy individual non-western cultures to make way for capitalist exploitation. The sociologist Tom Nairn argues that while Mcluhans global village could be reality, it is prevented from being so by the social forms of capitalism (Nairn 1968150 cited in Grosswiler 199834). He is not denying that it is achievable, but notes, The potential of electric media is, in fact, in contradiction with a great deal of the actual social world. He accuses Mcluhan of creating myths and ignoring the contradictions of his theory.The graphic below compare the distribution of Internet routers and the global population. (Soon-Hyung Yook, Hawoong Jeong, and Albert-Laszlo Barabasi at http//www. cybergeography. org/atlas/geographic. html) It is obvious from the map that the majority of the world is not connected. According to this the global village is made up of a minority of the worlds population. This is a model far from creating greater social involvement and has the potential to create a global divide between the connected and the unconnected.In my introduction I cited a statistic claiming that 1 in 6 people own a mobile phone in support of the global village concept. As with Mcluhans aphorisms this initially seems persuasive but closer inspection reveals the truth. The statistic suggests proportionality. As Briggs and Burke explain, While there were 600 million telephones in the world in 1982, half the worlds population lived in countries which together had fewer than ten million. Again this undermines the global village vision and adds empirical weight to Nairns criticism that the potential of the media is in contradiction with reality.As with the Internet, the global village is presented here as closely exclusively existing between develop ed western countries. Mcluhans vision dictated that minorities couldnt fail to be incorporated, yet they have been excluded by celibacy of being unconnected. Furthermore the Marxist view upholds that where third-world nations are included, it is only as means of stripping them of identity for capitalist ends. These points considered, it seems that Mcluhans vision is not a reality. Much of the world is unconnected and I need cite no evidence that it has not led to world peace.However, it should be noted that Africa is currently trail the way in the realms of mobile phone ownership. It has become the first continent in which the number of mobile phone users exceeds that of landline subscribers. A report has estimated that there will be 60 million people using mobile phones by the end of the year more than double the 27 million who have a landline and mobile phone ownership is growing at an annual rate of 65%, double the global average (Guardian, May 2004).It seems that we may be fa st heading toward a global village. However even with Africas growth in mobile phone ownership, this still only brings the total to 6% of the population (Guardian, May 2004) and Internet access is considerably lower. While it may be true that a virtual village has been created, it is far from the all-inclusive global vision that Mcluhan prophesised.

Group Theory Elements And Dynamics Management Essay

Group Theory Elements And Dynamics Management EssayImportance of Groups and Team has become a major focus in the business world. Organizations con measuree well realized that the evolution from individual to group direction approach is a priority in current time. The reality is that much of the organizations cash in ones chips is ended directly or indirectly through teams. Teams be utilise as sum of growing effectiveness and efficiency in many organizations. Group map and conflicts directly impact the choice of team member selection and required results. Creating an effective team is an art and a science. Any organization is constantly ever-changing and evolving. Change is good and the ability of an organization to adapt and be flexible helps stimulate the organizations growth (Mukherjee and Mukherjee, 2001). The give of teams to administer various undertakings and projects are utilized progressively by organizations with hopes that the performance and creativity of thes e teams will take them to the next ladder to success in the business world.This explains the words of H.E. Luccock No one ordure tattle a symphony. It takes an orchestra to play it.DefinitionA work group is a military issue of mortals, comm plainly reporting to a common superior and having just about face-to-face interactions, who develop some degree of interdependence in carrying out tasks for the purpose of achieving organizational goals. (Wendell L. French, Cecil H. Bell Jr., p. 155). A team on the other hand has some distinctiveness higher to that of an ordinary group, including higher degree of symbiosis and interaction and higher freights to achieve organization goals. in that locationfore, according to Jon Katzenbach and Douglas Smith, a team is a shrimpy number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. perishing in groups generates work relat ionships among individuals who get tied to one another with personal and cordial ties, which makes them an in testis organization. An informal organization consists of relationships that emerge and persist as a result of workers actual in the same workplace and having common objectives and similar riddles. An informal organization emerges as a result of a formal organization beca social occasion it is the latter that gathers workers in the same place to perform certain duties and r apiece specified objectives. Besides, it re prefaces the formal centers, relations and channels of communication between the workers and the rules that govern their behaviors and relations.Basic elements of the groupWork teams and informal organization are based on the following elementsRelations among membersThis consists of the daily dealings between individuals regarding their work and personal aspects. The relations of members are among the indices used to find out how far the group is holding to gether.RolesThese constitute roles given to team members good deal be similar to or different from their roles in the formal organization. One member may be assigned the task of solving work problems another undertakes the groups recreational and social activities. Role assignment depends upon many factors such as the individuals position in the group, his age, experience, ability and interests and personal characteristics, the extent of his being tied to the group and love for its members.ValuesThere are certain social encourages prevailing within the group from which members are inspired in their work. The group may follow the values of honesty and integrity at work, competition and production at the best possible levels. The members love for their group can be induced from their compliance with the values prevailing within it.Behavioral rulesThere are certain behavioral rules dictated by the group upon its members such as helping one another, correcting someone when he makes an error. There are a lot of rules that wipe out to be observed by group members.FeelingsSome feelings arise among group members as a result of their daily encounters and continuous relations. These are the same feelings as those found in the bigger society such as love and hatred, acceptance and rejection, peace and dispute, etc.If the group is settled and the informal organization persists, it can serve many major purposes, for it provides the chance of the workers acquaintance with one another and their subsequent cooperation and mutual assistance.Factors that affect the groups behaviorThe individuals objectives and the extent of their symmetry or contradiction with those of the group.The values and principles held by individuals and the degree of with their consistency with the organization values and principles.The nature of work performed by individuals and the degree of it consistency with their interests and abilities.The technological means used at work and the degree of their being modern or old.Technical and social training received by the individual.Ways of superiors and supervisors in dealing with their subordinates.The policies of the organization.The services provided by the management or organization to the individual.Disciplinary and punitive regulations and the procedures of their implementation.Group Theory Elements and DynamicsAccording to Johnson Johnson there are five major elements that must be present for a group to successfully reach a goal. The five elements are positive interdependence, individual accountability, primitive interaction, appropriate use of social skills, and group changeing. One of the factors established in group dynamics is that to have a group, two or more must be present and in like mindset of achieving a common goal. For this goal to be achieved certain skills must be present for a successful outcome.The skills required to have a successful group, andcertainly to have a successful outcome, involve every group member and certainly his or her participation and commitment. As listed by the authors one of the elements, positive interdependence of group members is necessary to have a successful group. This particular element ensures that one member cannot succeed without coordinating his or her efforts with all the other group members to complete the task. This specific element alike helps to eliminate diffusion of group responsibility. Each group member must come to equally and effectively in achieving the set goal so all members must have the same set of motivational factors.First and foremost to be successful the group must achieve its goals, give a good working relationship among its members, and lastly be able to adapt to the changing conditions it meets during the offshoot of accomplishing the goal (Johnson Johnson, 2000 P. 12).Clear, applicable and concise goals must be established and agreed upon by group members as such that a high level of commitment is evoked insuring complet ion of every group members interdependent contribution to the goal. Two-way communication is paramount for the group to be a success and all members should be aware that each and every one is to assume and participate in the role of leader. There should be a balance in power and decision-making, usually the preferred method being by consensus. According to Johnson and Johnson controversies are certainly going to arise in the group process. When this occurs group members should challenge conclusions and reasoning, resulting in germinal decision-making and problem solving. This particular group dynamic presents an opportunity for growth for the group members. Group members should face conflicts which will be promoted by incompatibilities and engage in problem-solving negotiations to break such conflicts. Several strategies can be used including withdrawal, forcing, smoothing, compromising and problem solving. meshs arising are an important factor and tend to increase group effective ness (Johnson Johnson, 2000).The splendor of team workTeamwork is important for an endless amount of reasons. There are so many things that are virtually impossible to take on without the use of a team that populates how to work together. The importance of teamwork is something that should be touched on during team building events. If this conceit is not understood and carried out at work, your team will not be running as a solid unit. Understanding your team and the many facets of it is just the beginning.The main reason to form a team is to accomplish something intense that cannot easily be achieved by just one person. community need to rely on each other sometimes and understanding that is the start to a potentially great working relationship. When we all come together with one specific shared goal, success is that much easier to obtain. Its also much more efficient and effective than trying to tackle a huge challenge by one member. Nothing great was ever achieved by one per son alone. It took many to build the pyramids so why should it take only one to build your ideal business? Understand that you can only benefit from working as a team.Compromise is the secret weapon of strong team that knows where their priorities lie. Nobody can be right all the time. functional as a team means understanding that compromise is essential for everyone to have their say and input. In order to unite for the purpose of success and frontward progression, some will have to concede that their way is not the best. And that is what working with others is about. divulgeing from each other is a great way to grow as an individual and as a whole.When you work closely with others, you tend to spend just as much time with them as you do with your own family. This can make for intimate working relations where you cant help but get to know others well. Breaking down these barriers and really getting to know each other will improve the quality of your team. By removing the stiff o r formal element and working in a relaxed, comfortable atmosphere, teams get to know one anothers skills and talents. This makes it easy to select people for roles that you know they are capable of handling. build a Culture of TeamworkTo make teamwork happen, these powerful actions must occur. Executive leaders communicate the clear expectation that teamwork and collaboration are expected. No one completely owns a work area or process all by himself. People who own work processes and positions are open and receptive to ideas and input from others on the team. Executives model teamwork in their interaction with each other and the rest of the organization. They maintain teamwork even when things are going wrong and the temptation is to slip back into former team unfriendly behavior. The organization members talk about and identify the value of a teamwork culture. If values are formally written and shared, teamwork is one of the key five or six. Teamwork is rewarded and recognized. The lone ranger, even if she is an excellent producer, is valued less than the person who achieves results with others in teamwork. Compensation, bonuses, and rewards depend on collaborative practices as much as individual contribution and achievement. Important stories and folklore that people hash out within the company evince teamwork. (Remember the year the capsule team reduced scrap by 20 percent?) People who do well and are promoted within the company are team players. The performance management system places emphasis and value on teamwork. Often 360 degree feedback is integrated within the system.Skills for High Performance TeamworkBasic dialogue Learn how peoples perceptions and viewpoints differ. Learn the basics of face-to-face communication. Analyze the difference between one-way and two-way communication. Understand the skill of listening. Improve active listening skills.talent and Receiving FeedbackLearn what feedback is. Discover how open or closed to giving and receiv ing feedback. Learn to give effective feedback to others. Learn how to receive start feedback from others. do giving and receiving live feedback from team members. Make a personal improvement plan to respond to team feedback.Group DynamicsLearn what group dynamic is. Experience and discuss group dynamics in action. Learn about group process and shared leadership. Determine what you can do personally to improve group process skills. Rate the teams group process. Identify how the team will improve its group process.Team Decision-Making Discuss barriers to group decision-making. Learn about methods of group decision-making. Practice consensus decision-making. Practice a group decision-making model. Identify how the team will improve its group decision-making. Review who is responsible for current team decisions. Identify team decision issues to be addressed. Discuss shifting to ideal team decision-making responsibilities.Team Problem Solving Learn the challenges of group problem solv ing. Gain a working definition of problem solving. Create a model for group problem solving and how to use it. Learn how to do creative brainstorming. Learn how to use cause and affect diagrams to tumble problems. Analyze how well your team is set up for effective problem solving. Learn the areas of group problem solving in which the team will improve.Conflict Resolution Learn a definition of unhealthy conflict and how to keep from crossing over into it. Learn about the different conflict management styles. usance a model to help choose a response to potential conflict situations. Assess which conflict styles the most often use. Practice Step exemplar for resolving conflict. Decide how to modify your conflict style and how you will better handle your current conflicts.Time Management Learn how currently using the time. Learn the barriers which keep from managing the time more effectively. Learn the difference between the important and the urgent, and how to schedule time for the important. Learn to set professional goals to guide your use of time. Create a systematic approach to managing daily events.Enhanced task performance and synergySynergy is the effect that the combined return whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts (Sebastian Knoll, Cross-Business Synergies, page 14)The phenomenon of Synergy within a Group or Team has become one of the most vital parts for an organization. People who work in groups are able to produce more efficiently and they confer greater quality of output than that produced by an individual and their productivity combined. articulate problem solving, variety in ideas and knowledge, different views towards an issue and accomplishing difficult tasks are some of the factors added by synergy in groups.To make utilize of synergy in groups managers need to make sure that, the group they put together comprise a variety of skills and talents which are diverse and corresponding but still relevant to the task, and being cert ain that these skills are coordinated efficiently. Managers should make sure that the groups achieve goals for the organization in their own way and enough independence is provided to solve problems. circumstance studies about group dynamic and teamworkIn todays competitive world where every organization is striving to gain the best position in the market the concept of Group Development and Teamwork are steadily gaining importance. Individual decision making has taken a back stage and paved the way for team management approach for problem solving and decision making which has been productive for the organizations. This strategy not only benefits the organization but also the individual employee, hence its been rapidly adopted by businesses.McDonaldManagement Professor Tracy McDonald also endorses the above facts that groups and teams take an organization to the next level of high performance and output through motivation, creativity and responsiveness and states that The teamwork push probably started in business in the late 1970s or early 80s with the advent of quality circles employee problem-solving teams, she says innovation, creativity and change have been some of the main drivers of team success and since the past 10 years, organizations have embraced this concept with welcoming hands.Toyota motorYuki Funo the Chairman and CEO of Toyota motor, states that the Toyota way is the way to number 1. One of the principles of the Toyota way is to add value to the organization by developing your people and people can be developed by molding them into prodigious individuals and teams to work within the corporate philosophy.FacebookNippard B. creator a Facebook group (teamwork ladder) on teamwork states that more than 80% of fortune 500 companies subscribe to teamwork. Teamwork brings success no issuing how you define victory.ConclusionTeam oriented approach is the order of the day when it comes to successful organizations who have empowered their employees, mo tivated them and involved them in such a way that the existence of the organization wouldnt have been possible without the existence of teams of such highly motivated individuals. Teamwork has bought the employee and the organization closer than ever. Problem solving, creativity, innovation and shared mass are as synonymous to teamwork as teamwork is to success. Although team building is a complex process and there are many challenges that hinder a teams success, it can be concluded that the team is the right organization for every task, the new orthodoxy and a reincarnation of the one-best-way. (Drucker P. 1999)

Management Accounting: Information for Decision-making

Management Accounting Information for Decision-makingManagement chronicle system knowledge should comply with a number of criteria including verifiability, objectivity, clippingliness, comparability, reliability, understandability and relevance if it is to be useful in planning, insure and s pourboireping point-making.Explain the meaning of each of the criteria named above and give a specific example to illustrate each.Give a brief explanation of how the criteria small in (a) talent be in conflict with each other, giving examples to illustrate where such conflict might arise.Question 2 (Information for finale-making)The overriding frolic of training for decision-making is that it should be relevant for the decision creation taken. However, decision-making varies considerably at different takes within an presidential term, thus posing a particular delicateies for the guidance controller. set forth the characteristics of decision-making at different take aims with in an organization.Explain how the oversight control moldiness tailor the learning leaved for the various train.Question 1 (a)Management write up instruction should comply with a various number of criteria including verifiability, objectivity, timeliness, comparability, reliability, understandability and relevance if it is to be useful in planning, control and decision-making. Below we atomic number 18 discussing most the criteria indispensable to strive its natural reason which is for planning, control and decision- making.The first criteria of precaution accounting teaching is verifiability. It means the ability through consensus among measurers to ensure that the nurture appoints the purposes and the right rule of bill has been used with start any errors or bias. It also means that it is observable to outsiders, in the context of model of entropy. Verifiability refers to the ability of accountants to ensure that accounting information is what it is meant to be. The outsiders push asidenot see the accounting informations and the references to those variables in a contract between the two parties cannot be enforced by outside authorities. An example of verifiability is that of two accountants looking at the same information like inventory valuation and coming to similar conclusions. There argon three key grimaces in verifiability. The first aspect is consensus among observers. The secondly one is the authorization of correspondence to economic things and tear downts. The third key aspect is direct verification versus indirect verification.Besides that, objectivity is another criteria that is also another useful aspect in planning and making decisions. Most accountants these days rely on verifiable evidence. Example of verifiable evidence are invoices, delivery notes, receipts, physical counts or even monetary statements. By practicing objectivity, it is now possible to compare financial statements of different firms with an assurance o f reliability and also uniformity. In another words, when the direction accountant is providing information to the top-level worry, they should provide the dead-on(prenominal) result without altering or changing anything so that the film director exit be able to consume a accurate decision without being influenced by anyone.Moreover, patness is one of the important parts for management to balance the relation back merits of timely delineate and the provision of reliable information. Timeliness is concerned with having information to meet needs of decision makers in the beginning it loses its capacity to influence decisions. More accurate information may take a thirster time to produce. Thus, to provide information on a timely basis, it may often be necessary to report before all aspects of management accounting transactions or any other event. Example, a firm may test-market a potential new crossing in a city. Despite a long wait for the accurate marketing report may ca use a slight delay in the managements decision to launch the new product nationally and the information will be useless to the decision making crop. Thus, it is one of the managerial accountants role in the decision-making process which will decide what information is relevant to each decision problem and provide accurate and timely data. Not for exactting that its a conflicting criteria. Delaying information can significantly influence decisions and can rob information of its potential usefulness. Timeliness can have a direct impact on stock prices. Late reporting can represent bad news or a negative forecast. If the delay is great, it allows the opportunity for more information to be reported and to be supplied or maybe even speculated on by other sources.The next criteria is comparability. This criteria helps us to compare the financial statement of an entity through time in parliamentary procedure to identify trends in its financial position and performance. At the same time, this criteria also helps to evaluate and compare the financial statements of different entities. It provides information about a particular entity that can be compared with information about other entities and with similar information about the same entity for some period or some other point of time. For an example, the management accountant should get to the accounting information in a consistent way using historical concept for every year so that it will be untold easier for the company to make comparison with the past accounting information or related entities. The heads of the company must determine if they want comparability to be impelled by the type of instrument or other factors such as management intentions and industry segments. For an example, financial service, software and also manufacturing.Another criteria which is also needed is reliability. It is the quality of information that assures that information is reasonable free from any errors and are bias and faithful ly represents what it purports to represent. It related to faithful representations and verifiability. An aspect in the context of reporting for financial instruments is the reliability of measurements including relevant disclosures about such reliability. For example, the staff has observed that many constituents seem to equate reliability with verifiability, not representational faithfulness. For purposes of discussion at this meeting, the staff plans to collect those sub-characteristics into three groups. The first one is, Faithful representation, including completeness and substance over form. The second one is verifiability, including precision and suspicion. The last one is neutrality, including freedom from bias, prudence, and conservatism.The second last criteria is understandability. It relates to the users perspective and financial informations that are useful. It could be increased by lessen complexities for users through reporting information that represents the underl ying economics, or by reducing the number of alternative accounting methods applicable to a subset of asset. Informations that increases the understandability are definitely very useful. Understandability is cognize as when the users have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting and a willingness to know more the information with reasonable diligence. Information about complex matters that should be included in the financial statements because of its relevance to the economic decision making needs of users should not be excluded merely on the grounds that it may be too difficult for certain users to understand. For the example, management accountant should prepare the accounting information or summarize of the report and analysis that easily understood to the decision maker in order to let them easy to make final decision. One other noteworthy aspect of the interaction of the financial statements and Management Commentary is the understandability of the information provided in the financial reports. Understandability can be adversely impacted by placing related information in different parts of a report and not providing the user with a cross reference. If the IASB does add guidance on Management Commentary to its existing guidance on financial statement disclosures, this would provide an opportunity to better integrate related information.The last criteria is relevance. It is also very important in the planning, control and decision-making. Relevance is the capacity of informations that are needed to make a difference in a decision by helping the users to form predictions about the outcomes of the past, present and future events or even to confirm or correct prior expectations. Relevance may be represented by determining which values assigned to financial instruments allows user to make better decisions ground on the information provided to them. Informations may be deemed more or less relevant based on which measurement bas is is being used. Different decisions fundamentally will require different type of data. For example, an analysis on a project should not have any information on indirect be because it is not relevant for making decision of the project and should include any prime cost because it is relevant cost for the decision-making.Question 1 (b)Management accounting information is used to satisfy the management needs. Those informations are useful for planning, controlling and decision making. However, these criteria also face conflict amongst one another. Conflict simply refers to the mutual exclusiveness or interference of ones idea, event, or activity with another. In this case, the conflict between criteria will happen when satisfying a criterion affects another criterion being difficult to fulfill as they are in collision with each other. They are few types of conflicts involved. Below are the conflicts.Relevance vs ReliabilityRelevance and reliability are two important criteria which a re needed while making a decision. However, often on that point are some conflicts occur because of these two conflicts, requiring a trade-off between various degrees of relevance and reliability. A forecast of a financial variable may possess a high degree of relevance to investors and creditors. However, a forecast necessarily contains subjectivity in the estimation of future events. Therefore, because of a low degree of reliability, generally accepted accounting principles do not require companies to provide forecasts of any financial variables. Reliability and relevance often impinge on each other. Reliability may suffer when an accounting method is changed to gain relevance and vice versa. Sometimes, it may not be puzzle out whether there has been a loss or either on relevance or reliability. The introduction of original cost accounting will illustrate the point. Proponents of current cost accounting believe that current cost income from continuing operations is a more relev ant measure of operating performance than is operating profit computed on the basis of historical cost. They also believe that if holding gains and losses that may have accrued in past periods are separately displayed, current cost income from continuing operations better portrays operating performance. The uncertainties surrounding the determination of current costs, however, are considerable, and variations among estimates of their magnitude can be expected. Because of those variations, verifiability or representational faithfulness, components of reliability, might diminish. Whether there is a net gain to users of the information obviously depends on the relative weights attached to relevance and reliability (assuming, of course, that the claims made for current cost accounting are accepted).Comparability vs ConsistencyComparability is another important criteria for planning control and decision making. Comparability which enables users to identify similarities in and differences between economic phenomena should be distinguished from consistency the consistent use of accounting methods. Concerns about comparability or consistency should not preclude reporting information that is of greater relevance or that more faithfully represents the economic phenomena it purports to represent. If such concerns arise, disclosures can help to pay off for lessened comparability or consistency.Timeliness vs verifiabilityTimeliness and verifiability is needed all times for decision making. Information is useful when it is timely. To be timely, the information must be available when needed to define problem or to be begin to identify possible solutions. Those criteria might conflict with verifiability. It is because when needed verifiability information, it may take time to calculate or to get it after occupation process is end. Verifiability is the useful information when it is accurate. Before relying on information to make decisions, it is important to ensure that the information is correct. For example, a production manager has to decide the actual amount of lychee to be used in produce of 10000 units of lychee drink. But, because of the time habituated is limited, he has to prepare the report to the top management by forecasting the amount of lychee that will be used. Although he has meet the criteria of timeliness, he is might not meet the criteria of verifiable. This is because, he did not use the actual amount of lychee that will be used. This might cause some problems to occur during the production process. The cost of lychee is lower or others factors. When the production has come to an end, he will be able to know the actual amount of lychee that was been used. So, there is a conflict between timeliness and verifiability.Timeliness vs reliabilityAnother conflict is between timeliness and reliability. Information is said to be reliable when they curb all aspects of a transaction as well as other events in order to facilitate users in dec iding on any go forth regarding the latter. However, most of the times in providing timely reporting, those aforesaid transactions or events are never taken into account as it occurs after the report is hustling and thus impairing reliability. In interest of timeliness, the reliability of the information is sacrificed, every loss of reliability diminishes the usefulness of information and as time pass, and either the reliability of the information drops or increase accordingly. For example, the material supplier decides to supply only one of the real(a) A. Company Y is very interested and is capable to buy the veridical A. The supplier is interested on selling the Material A to Company Y, but there is no contract signed between them. As time passes, the supplier received an offer from Company Zs, with a higher price and shorter time compared to Company Y. Therefore, Material A is selling to Company Z and Y loses the Material A. Company Y is reliable on material supplier to get t he Material A yet the supplier needed to sell the Material A in a shorter time to get the profit. So, supplier decides to sell it to Company Z. Thus, the criterion of timeliness is conflict with criteria of reliability.Question 2(a)The process identifying problems and opportunities and resolving them is called as Decision Making. Decision making is intertwined with the other functions such as planning, coordinating and controlling. Decisions are made in order to change the companys current status to a more desirable state of affair. Managers, teams, and individual employees make company decisions, depends on the scope of the decision and the design and mental synthesis of the organization. Organizations which have decentralized structures will deputise more decisions to teams and front-line employees. Programmability, uncertainty, risk, conflict, scope, and crisis are the characteristics of decision making.Programmability is divided into two. They are programmed decisions and non- programmed decision. Programmed decision means identifying a problem and matching the problem with established routines and procedures for resolving it. Whereas, the non-programmed decision is the process of identifying and solving a problem when a situation is unique and there are no any previously established routines or procedures that can be used as guidelines.Uncertainty also has two types. They are certainty and uncertainty. Certainty is the condition when all the information is needed to make a decision. However, uncertainty is the condition when the information available to make a management decision is incomplete. jeopardize is the level of uncertainty as to the outcome of a management decision. Risk has positive and negative aspects too. Decision environment for risk vary depending on company size and culture. Those who work in entrepreneurial firm must be more comfortable with making risky decisions than those who work in large corporations with established procedures.Nex t characteristic of decision making is conflict. It is always hard to get everyone to agree about what to do. Conflict over opposing goals, utilization of scarce resources, and other priorities are often characterized in decision making.Decision scope is the solution and time horizon of the decision. The effect of a decision includes who is involved in making the decision and who is affected by it. The time horizon of a decision may range from a single day to five years or more. There are three different level of management. They are the top-level management, ticker level management and the lower management. The top-level management takes the strategical decisions. The middle(a) level management takes tactical decision. And the lower level management takes the operational decision.The top level management who makes the strategic decisions encompasses a long term perspective of two to five years and affect the entire organization. Top level managers, or strategic manager are also called senior management and executives. They are those individuals who are at the top one or two levels in an organization. Examples of top level management are The Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operational Officer (COO), Chief Informational Officer (CIO), President, Vice President, chairman and Board of Directors. They have the long-term vision for the company. They are not involved in day-to-day tasks need to possess conceptual skill so as to set the goals for the organization as a whole. For example, Jerry Yang, the former chief executive of YAHOO, was criticized when a $44.6 billion acquisition bid from Microsoft failed under his watch. They frame the organizational policy. They are also responsible for(p) for mobilization of resources. They generally make large budgetary decisions for the company and are responsible to the shareholders and the general public. The success or failure of the organization rests on the shoulders of the top l evel management.Middle level managers are those in the levels below the top managers. Middle level management makes Tactical decisions which have a short-term perspective of one year or less and focus on subunits of the organization, such as departments or project teams. Tactical decision is the miscellanea of strategic decision and operational decision. Example of middle management is General Manager (GM), Plant Manager, Regional manager and Divisional manager. Middle level managers are responsible for carrying out the goals set out by top management with setting goals for their departments and other business units. Tactical decisions, the medium term decisions about how to tool strategy, are delegated to middle managers. Middle management decisions might include marketing a new product, communicating with and managing lower management and determining what issues need to be addressed with top level managers. Each individual middle management department develops a strategy to meet its inner departmental goals.Lower level management makes Operational decisions which cover the shortest time perspective, generally less than a year. Operational decisions, short term decision or also called administrative decisions about how to implement the tactics affect daily tasks and generally handled by lower level managers. They are often made on a daily or weekly basis and focus on the routine activities of the firm such as production, customer service, and handling parts and supplies. Office managers, shift supervisor, department manager, foreperson, clustering leader and store manager, are responsible for the daily management of line workers. For example, supervisor may decide to reward the most productive employee with an employee of the month award, or offer incentives such as gift certificates.The last characteristic of decision making is Crisis. Decision making during crisis is more challenging and difficult than under run-of-the-mill conditions. Making a decision in a crisis situation can make or break the career of a manager.Question 2(b)A management accountants duty is to provide information to users who are part of the organization from various levels. However, different level of management has different information needs. Thus, a management accountant has to tailor the information for them.The first step that should be taken before the management accountant provides any type of information is that he should be clear and understand the company vision as the top, middle and bottom management of an organization. The top-level management is responsible for the long term strategis plan with strategic decisions for about 5 to 10 years time. Therefore the top management will create a mission, which will consist of a more specific goal that unifies companys efforts. So, the management accountant should prepare budgets for top management accountant to decide which projects have to undertaken to achieve the companys goals. Budget is a strategic p lan that details the action that must be taken during the following year. It also pinpoint the responsibility of achieving the budgets to respective managers inline the company policies. For example, management accountant prepare the imposed budgets to top management before imposed to middle management to achieve targets. In the top-level management, a management accountant should be responsible for all or a part of a companys financial status, actions and transactions. The management accountant should also brinytain budgets, perform financial analysis, build business strategies and also manage their relationships with investors and auditors.In middle management, they are responsible for developing and carrying the tactical plans to accomplish the organizations mission. Tactical plans specify how company will use resource, budgets and mountain to achieve company goals within its mission. In this level, management accountant will use various methods to decide the profit with minimum production costs. Profit volume analysis is one of the methods to calculate changes in cost and sales in determine the profit. Management accountant will calculate breakeven point where the level of sales of company needs to achieve at zero profit. after that, management accountant also prepared the report on scare resources which the supply of resources is limited by define the limit factor. Then, management accountant will produce the product that give higher contribution per limiting factor and take considerations of qualitative factors before final decisions is made. Final decisions is means whether to make or to buy the decision. It is situation where an organization is given a choice to produce by own resources or pay other organization to make the product. afterwards management accountant prepare the information in form of cost volume profit, limiting factors analysis and decisions about activities either to buy or to make, middle management have to decide, carrying the ta ctical plans and delegating the responsibility of jobs to the operational management. In a summary, the types of information that a management accountant should tailor to middle-level management is like preparing financial statements, assess internal controls, supervise accounting staffs, complete and review tax returns and also help to manage the general ledger.Lower prise management is responsible to carry the operational plans where it is related to day to day plans in producing products or services. For example, management accountant will determine the economic order quantity for lower management to know the amount of inventory they should reorder order to minimize ordering cost and holding costs. Therefore, lower level management will order the maximum order. In the lower level, the types of informations a management accountant should tailor are receivables and payrolls, financial statement and compliance audit, help in the budget department and also prepare reports for the co ntrollers department.Question 2(c)An example of a typical management decision is Strategic Decision. Strategic Decision would normally be taken at first level which is top management.A top management approach is one where an executive, decision maker, or other person or body makes a decision. This approach is disseminated under their authority to lower levels in the hierarchy, who are, to a greater or lesser extent, bound by them. For example, a structure in which decisions either are approved by a manager, or approved by his or her authorized representatives based on the managers prior guidelines, is top to bottom management. Top management translates the policy (formulated by the board-of-directors) into goals, objectives, and strategies, and projects a shared-vision of the future. It makes decisions that affect everyone in the organization, and is held entirely responsible for the success or failure of the enterprise Strategic decisions are broad based, qualitative type of decisi ons which include or reflect goals and objectives. Strategic decisions are non quantitative in nature. Strategic decisions are based on the subjective thinking of management concerning goals and objectives.Besides that, there are impact of mergers and acquisitions on top level management.Impact of mergers and acquisitions on top level management may actually involve a clash of the egos. There might be variations in the cultures of the two organizations. Under the new set up the manager may be asked to implement such policies or strategies, which may not be quite approved by him. When such a situation arises, the main focus of the organization gets diverted and executives become busy either settling matters among themselves or moving on. However, the decision maker must be well furnished with a degree or must have sufficient qualification to solve the problems that arises.Knowledge of management accounting is needed by the decision-maker to come out with relevant information. A part of that, there might be an impact on tax because of this decision made. The information provided not only for the inside people but also for the external people such as shareholders or supplier.On the other hand, top management will practises non-routine concept for all the activities held. Non-routine is known as nonrecurring decision such as the following to accept or reject a special order to make or buy a certain part, to sell or process further, or to keep or drop a certain product line or division. In these types of decisions, the decision maker must have knowledge of relevant costs and contribution margin.

The Need for Change Management in Coca Cola

The Need for Change Management in Coca ColaThe connection was established by Dr. gutter Stith Pemberton -a local pharmacist in Atlanta on May 8, 1886. It was first sold in Jacobs pharmacy for 5 cents per glass. Initially, Coca-cola was sold as a dose for curing minor diseases like dyspepsia, morphine addiction, and headache. Asa Griggs Candler acquired a stake in Pembertons fellowship in 1887 and incorporated it as the Coca-Cola Company in 1888. Now, Coco-cola is hotshot of the largest manufacturer, distributor and marter of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups in the world. Coca Cola products bearing the associations trademark atomic number 18 now being sold in more than 200 countries around the world. The company owns or licence more than 450 brands, including diet and light beverages, waters, enhanced waters, juice, teas, coffees, and energy and sports drinks. The company step on blending raw material, packaging in screwingisters and shipping the finished pro ducts to bottlers. The bottling partners of coco-cola range from international and publicly traded subscriber line to small, family owned operations. The bottling partners hold 90,500 associates to carry on the product to more than 200 million customers. The company had introduced at least 29 untestedborn lines of products from October 2004-August 2007 alone In 2009, the company generated revenue of $31billion with $6.8 billion net income. This company has fully understands the importance of innovation in business is the Coca-Cola CompanyIntroductionChange counseling is a continuous march and it is followed by many organisations on a routine basis (Schroeder and Self, 2008). This process aims at attaining successful strategies, manpower and process for an organisation. The management of an organisation usually goes for a kind mainly because of its stiff competition in market referable to globalisation factor, technological innovation and demographic trend. Quite few people d isagree with the concept but few say that the organisation is performing whole nigh by managing the major kinds inside the organisation. Greenwood Hinings, 1988 state that organization demand to survive and in grade to do so they anticipate and adapt to these smorgasbords through strategies including organizational redesign. This adoption of strategies leads to the transplant in the culture of the organisation. (Schroeder and Self, 2008 cite Collins, 2001) stating that organizations which fail to adapt or do not respond to the changes required in a well timed(p) fashion are prone to the risk of losing their market share to competitors, the further implications could be that they might lose key employees or lose the support of the shareholders and in extreme situations even demise. They withal outlined two major challenges that the organisations face. The first would be to recognize the need for change and the second which is more signifi evoket is how to position strategi es formulated to implement the changes recognised. If the change death penalty is think properly, then the chances of the nonstarters are reduced a lot and it could also prevent the aftermaths of the failed change process such(prenominal) as reduced employee morale or diminished commitment.Need for strategic change in an organisationCoco-cola Company is one of the popular manufacturer and distributor of Non-alcoholic beverages. It operates in many separate of the world and provides services to different customers. Today, many companies are using new approach for their products to reach more target market and to ensure that they can survive with the globalisation challenge. For this, the company needs to develop a new change process for sustaining in world market and face up the stiff competitors. The current state of Coca Cola stores in Hong Kong is pretty good and it is still one of the top distributors of soft drinks in Hong Kong. However, if it volition be compared to other Coca Cola convenience stores in the world the marketing, inventory, and performance of takeforce is not equivalent to other Coca Cola company. For that, the company decides to augment the efficiency of the marketing and inventory, as well as the productiveness of workforce through implementing change management programmes for maintaining standards and sustaining in world market. If the changes are applied deep down the management then in early there would be an increase in the company output.Factors driving the changeThe main aim of Coca-Cola is to meet and remunerate the needs of customers with excellent product manufacturing and distribution. The change management of this company is rattling fragile since they predicted that there are some marketing challenges in the near future that they need to face.In-order to access the changes in Coca-Cola Company, there should a concrete identification of issues attached with company. The radical change process will affect the employee s and other stakeholders of Coca-Cola Company. Basically, the itinerary of the change is towards the development of workforce and not on the services. Since, the company has already established a reputation of delivering good services in the market. The change is also about the possible financial problems that the company may face in the near future. From this discussion, the following figure shows the force-field analysis of the change management procedures suggested to the application of change management within Coca Cola Company.Force-Field AnalysisFrom this analysis, it is clearly seen that the computed forces to change is much higher compared to the forces against change. Force-field analysis is one of the most important tools used in change management (Bass, I. 2009). Meaning to say, the plan is quite logical with respect to possible opposition. Actually, change management is basically defined as the formulation and culture of change in a methodical process (Kotter, J. P., S chlesinger, L.A. 1979). Meaning, the major quarry of change management which is the introduction of new systems in the work organisation hence the change project is normal to companies engaged in change management. Similarly, this can be compared to the adoption of new marketing strategies. Businesses like Coca-Cola Company mustiness commonly undergo change in order to evolve to a higher level of for instance, stability, management or production. Coca- Cola Company always wanted to shake off an extreme development. The Chief Executive Officer of Coca-Cola may include changing the companys mission, reforming business operations, application of new technologies, major group efforts, or adoption of new programs. Usually, the organisation is encouraged on settling on change management due to external influences, usually termed as the environment (Nickols, 2004). Thus, change management can alternately be defined as the response of different business to changes brought about by envi ronmental influences in which organisations have minimal or perfectly no control over. Perhaps the space mingled with the new organisation design and implementing it into reality is the whole coverage of organisation change and development. However, certain skills must be present from the initiators of change so as to successfully implement their project. Thus, managers need to have the necessary abilities not only on detecting what needs to be changed but also how to introduce the change effectively.System to involve stake holdersThe change process are relied on the whole organisation, which means variant parties seeming abnormal by change involving the increase in efficiency of marketing and inventory, as well as the effective work-force of employees. Stakeholders pertain to the parties linked to the business stiff who stand to experience benefits or adverse effects from the change (Friedmand, 2007, p. 172). Identifying the stakeholders and the respective interests is import ant to develop ways of wining over these various stakeholders who are likely to contribute to the success of the planned change. Determining stakeholders or the parties affected by the change together with the impact of the change to these parties is also important in prioritizing stakeholder interests as well as the resolution of issues faced by the stakeholders. (French Delahaye, 1996, p. 22)Involving stake holders in change management strategiesThere are a number of stakeholders in the planned change falling under either internal or external stakeholders.First is top management of the organization who decide on the change, direct dodge implementation, and carry accountability for the outcomes of the change.Second are middle managers who are minimal affected by the change and comprise implementers of the tasks constituting change.Third are employees also affected by the change and serve as the movers in process of change.These three stakeholders also constitute internal stakehold ers as they form part of the organization and straightway experience and participate in the change process.Fourth are bottlers associates of the company who could be affected by the change of product.Fifth are investors and investing parts providing capital needed in the change process.Sixth are customers for whom the change is directed and from whom the impact of change is assessed.These last three stakeholders comprise external stakeholders by not being part of the organization. These stakeholders influence the change indirectly but could influence the success of the change management activity. The most important tool is the uninflected tool is the resource dependence theory (Frooman, 1999, p. 191) that classified the human relationship between the firm and stakeholders into four types, which are 1) firm power, 2) high interdependence, 3) low interdependence, and 4) stakeholder power. The nature of the relationship determines the issues requiring resolution to manage effective ly stakeholders. The core idea of this analytical tool is the recognition of the limited self-sufficiency of business firms so that they have to rely on their environment to address difficulties.Firm-Stakeholder RelationshipStakeholdersFirm PowerMiddle Managers, Employees,Stakeholder PowerCustomers, Top ManagementHigh InterdependenceInvestors and Investment PartiesLow InterdependenceSuppliersThe implementation of this analytical tool shows the stakeholder priority of the organization in achieving the planned change in the context of resource accumulation. Since the company has strong dependence on investors and investiture parties as source of capital and investors also rely on the company to experience returns. This means that the company should develop mutual positive relationship with investors and investment parties. Since the power of stakeholder is high in the case of customers and top management, which means that the company should consider the important roles of top managem ent in directing change insurance and customers in exclusivelyifying the area of change. Resistance to changeThe main success of implementation the change is achieved by identifying and understanding the factors which block the implementation process. Kotter (1996, p. 3) described blocks as the aggregate of the hindrances and issues experienced by business firms in the course of implementing change. The unaddressed electric opposition may lead to severe delays, accumulation of additional costs and even failure in implementing the change.Resistance finds explanation through the transition curve (Fisher, 2001). The resistance for establishing the changes in marketing, inventory and performance of personal in Coco-cola Hong-Kong will rely only if on managers and employees of the organisation. It also restructures the organisation by making some changes in the management by removing some employees or position or by adding some more employees or reassignment employees. This situatio n builds up a fear in the minds of employees and managers. The change also includes in hiring new employees, which can be perceived as a threat by existing employees. In particular, there are many sources which could resist the planned change. The employees have some fear on their custom status if any changes are implemented. So, the initial response of employees will be on fighting against the change to prevent their actual positions. On the other hand, it can create a positive attitude on employees that the new change will secure their position after implementing the changes. Employees experience more safety by improving their skills and knowledge and in order to finish their work effectively. Still another is the different perspectives of managers and employees towards the purpose and impact of the planned change. The different in sagaciousness could divide support for the change. Last is the adverse perception towards the change because of lack of consultation. The implementat ion of change without sufficient consultation, based on the perspective of managers and employees, could develop nix regard towards the change.Kotters model of changeKotters model provides eight reasons why process of change in an organization fails. It means that if these eight reasons for failure is removed or their impact is minimized a successful change process is possible. These eight steps can broadly divided into three categories as preparation (steps 1-4), execution (steps 5-7) and grounding (step 8). So Kotters model can be used to assess the change process in Coco-cola Company1.) Establish a sense of spurringThe senior management of coco-cola realised that a change in their system of operations was necessary in order for them to grow in business. Hence the coco-cola Hong-Kong firm did not delay in addressing the issue and realised the need for technological innovation and new marketing strategies required in the company operations. These were the internal factors that t he company was sorting out after reviewing the financial report of the convenience stores. All in all, it can be said that the sense of urgency was established.2.) Form a powerful guiding coalitionThe second step is to create a strong guiding coalition. The management of coco-cola formed a team of experts to help in guiding the change process of the management.3.) Creating a visionThe expert team appointed by the management presented a new vision for favouring the success and reaping of the organisation. They also suggested some strategies to achieve the vision on a short period of time.4.) Communicating the VisionThe management created a vision for the change and it is very important for the company to communicate the vision to its employees. The company planned to increase the productiveness of work force. So, this may create a conflicts or misunderstanding between management and employees of the company in communicating vision. The top management should properly guide the employ ees in how to respond that change.5.) Empowering others to act on the visionIn this step the Coco-cola management was completely failed because they didnt empower employees to implement that vision. Employees werent encouraged to take any risks without the approval of the management and they were not allowed to take decisions at their own. Even management never used to welcome any new ideas from the employees during the branch meetings.6.) Planning for and creating short term winsHere management needed to motivate its staff members by creating short targets for them with a degree of low failure. But this wasnt the case. There was no short-term win strategy planned by the management and it was more focused on achieving the yearly targets of profit. So employees were totally neglected in the change process and nothing was done to motivate them like salary increase, bonuses, etc7.) Consolidating improvements and producing still more changeFor implementation of new vision the top manag ement needs to change the systems and policies of coco-cola which didnt support that change. But this wasnt done. The employees who were more responsible to implement change were neither promoted or the company didnt hire any additional people for carrying on the vision. Coco-cola tried to execute change with help of the existing employees8.) Institutionalizing new approachesCoco-cola had realised the need of new strategies to implement change and also introduced incentives for the employees who would implement the change successfully. The company also saw to it that they communicated what they wanted from the employees successfully through conferences, emails and meetings.Overcoming Resistance to changeIn change management, the resistance of employees in firm is usual expected. However, overcoming the resistance is important in order to implement the required changes in the management strategies. According to Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) there are six approaches that an organisati on can use in dealing with the resistance by the workforce and these areEducation and Communication- In order to overcome the resistance in Coca-Cola the employees should be educated and informed regarding the changes within the company before implementation and also to prevent incorrect information that will surround the work area.Participation and Involvement- employees should be involved with planned changes in management programmes of the company because once they become involved the employees will not resist but sooner will participate in the changes that will be undertaken.Facilitation and Support- Some employees will resist the changes because they are unable to adjust with the new programmes implemented by the management to avoid resistance the management must support the employees that are having a hard time with the changes, establishing a support system will help and give ear the employees to adjust quickly.Negotiation and Agreement- Coca-Cola should talk and negotiate with employees, and during the talks the management must discuss the incentives they will receive once they accepted the changes in the management strategies. habit and Co-option- if the other approaches didnt work inviting the union leader to participate and be a representation in the change process will aid in overcoming the resistance to change.Explicit and Implicit Coercion- if all approaches didnt work then the last step would be forcing them to accept the implemented changes and threaten them that if they will not comply the employees will lose their jobs.ConclusionChange management is basically defined as the formulation and assimilation of change in a methodical process. The major objective of change management is the introduction of innovative means and systems in the work organisation. This can similarly be compared to the application of certain information technologies in the company or the adoption of new marketing strategies. Businesses must normally undergo change in o rder to evolve to a higher level of for instance, stability, management or production. Appointing a new head officer, for example, can greatly enhance his subordinates based on his management principles and personality. From these discussions, we may conclude that change management is a process in which all companies undergo. This is an important procedure because it enables the organisation to make decisions that will be advantageous and beneficial to the company. In addition, organisations that are open to change are generally more successful compare to companies that resist it. In a globalise market, new technologies and procedure are emerging rapidly, in order to keep up with this progress a company must be willing to adapt to management changes. The international, as well as, the local market has a very stiff competition, therefore in order to be on top change management must be utilised by companies. Coca-Cola is one of the best examples of companies that utilised change manag ement efficiently and have yielded positive results. The evidence is the dominance of Coca-Cola in the soft drink industry not just in Asia but all over the world.

The Language of Machines :: Technology Communication Essays

The Language of MachinesComputers are address machines. By saying this I mean both that language impact is a valuable metaphor for understanding computer computation and that, in a fundamental way, computer computation is language processing no more, no less. The language understood by a modern computer when it first comes off the assembly line is quite simple. The alphabet of this language consists of two letters, 0 and 1 (or a and b or any separate two characters, it doesnt matter), which is stored intern each(prenominal)y as two intensities of an electrical signal (either high or low). The grammar of this language has two rules (1) Sentences consist of one word and (2) Words are all of a single specified length (probably either 16 or 32 characters). This computer knows in two ways. It knows what every word in the language means (i.e., what action to perform upon reading that word, information which is stored in the design of the processor), and it knows all of the words it has stored in memory. Each time a computer reads a reprobate (executes a command), a change results in memory, dependent on what the sentence says and what is already in memory. Modern computers are Turing machines (named after the British mathematician Alan Turing), which means that they are language machines which kindle simulate other language machines. In other words, given a special type of text to read (a program), a Turing machine that understands the simple language described above (for example) can act as if it understands a much more complicated language. This is why modern computer keyboards have more than just 0s and 1s on them. A modern computer comes bang with many virtual computers built on top of it, so to speak, enabling the computer to understand much more complex (although numericly equivalent) higher-level languages. These are numerical languages, of course they have much more rigid structure and precise meaning than natural languages. They lack in many ways what Derrida calls play. But must they? Is there an intrinsic fundamental difference between mathematical and natural languages, or is the difference instead that we have more control over mathematical languages because we know their rules and can understand the system in which they work, while with natural languages we know neither, because we are not in conscious control of their creation and we can not fully grasp how they operate in society and in our heads?

Hope by Emily Dickinson Essay -- Papers Emily Dickinson Hope Essays

Hope by Emily DickinsonAs a literary charwoman of the nineteenth century, Emily Dickinson wrote, ? ?Hope? is a things with feathers- that perches in the soul- and sings a tune without the words- and never stops- at all.? Are you listening? Does your soul too sing a melody, an ongoing tune to which you delicately move, and never stop? Here Dickinson suggests an aspect of life, a struggle for spiritual freedom, that applies to many women within the nineteenth century, as well as the women of today. My consciousness speaks to me a travel of hope rests inside my soul, hoping to emerge into the sunlight of each new day. I am a woman I am a delicate woman who listens to Dickinson?s fine words. I listen to the tune that never ends, in a constant search for achieving my own ?space.? Everyday, I struggle to free my feathery bird from its cage. Dickinson has identified with her internal struggle as a woman, to achieve an outer space, and as the bird, she freed herself from the cage that hel d her spiritual soul. A caged bird symbolizes Dickinson?s soul. Similarly, fabricated women in nineteenth century literature are caged birds. Consider for example, Kate Chopin?s, Edna Pontellier in The Awakening and Charolette Perkins Gilman?s, Woman, in ?The discolor Wallpaper.?Initially in Kate Chopin?s, The Awakening we meet a fair, frail, passionate woman, Edna Pontellier, whose destiny is to fall into spiritual depression. She is a caged bird that cannot be released from her own spiritual confinement until she recognizes her own strength to do so. Edna?s childish, unprompted tendencies, concerning her submissiveness towards her ?lovers? and adultery towards her husband create confusion in finding the outlet for her freedom and passion. ... ...soul within me? Who keeps the bird from singing a melody which I get a line I ask the same question for the fictional women I have studied. ?Is it within hotshot?s strength to determine who has the key to the cage As I continue to struggle for the answers to my questions, I continue to listen to the bird that is perched within my soul, singing the ongoing tune- that never stops at all. I too, one day, hope to free myself from the cage that holds me back from life, a free spiritual life. Works CitedChopin, Kate. The Awakening, Susan Gilbert, Ed. The Awakening and Selected Stories. New York Penguin Books, 1984. Dickinson, Emily. ?Hope.? The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Ed. ThomasH. Johnson. Boston Little, Brown & Company, 1960. Gilman, Charolette Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper. Wallace Stegner and Mary Stegner,